All disabled people have the right to liberty and security of person, equal protection under the law, and freedom from torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. This page centers disabled people's expertise to help public safety officers—police, firefighters, EMTs, and other first responders—interact safely and respectfully with disabled people.
Disabled people are significantly overrepresented in use-of-force incidents and police killings. Studies suggest 30-50% of people killed by police have a disability. More than half of disabled African Americans have been arrested by age 28—double the rate of white disabled counterparts.
These are not inevitable outcomes. They result from officers misinterpreting disability-related behaviors, communication failures, lack of training, and systems that send armed responders to situations better handled by other professionals.
This toolkit addresses both how to do better within current systems and when alternatives to police response are more appropriate.
Disability is often invisible. Officers encounter people whose behavior seems unusual without knowing why. The same behaviors that indicate disability can be misinterpreted as:
Misinterpretation leads to escalation. Escalation leads to harm.
Autism:
Intellectual Disability:
Psychiatric Disabilities:
Deaf/Hard of Hearing:
Physical Disabilities:
When in doubt, assume disability. The consequences of treating a disabled person as threatening are severe. The consequences of treating a non-disabled person with extra patience are minimal.
De-escalation prioritizes safety for everyone through communication and patience rather than force.
Time and distance: Create physical and temporal space. Back off if safe to do so—space reduces escalation.
Calm communication: Use a calm, low voice. Avoid shouting commands.
Simple instructions: One instruction at a time. Allow time for processing.
Reduce stimulation: Turn off sirens, dim lights if possible, reduce number of people.
Listen: Let people talk. Talking de-escalates.
Explain: Tell people what's happening and why. Uncertainty escalates.
Many disabilities affect processing speed. After giving an instruction:
Appearing to ignore commands is often inability to process quickly, not refusal.
One person communicates at a time. Multiple officers giving commands is overwhelming.
Use simple, direct language. Avoid idioms, sarcasm, and complex sentences.
Explain what you're doing before you do it, especially before any physical contact.
Ask about communication needs: "How can I best communicate with you?"
Recognition signs:
Communication approaches:
Legal requirements: ADA requires effective communication. For arrests, interrogations, and complex interactions, qualified interpreters are required.
Critical warnings:
Some people don't communicate through speech but do communicate:
Ask if they have a way to communicate. Wait for device-generated responses—they take time. Don't take away communication devices.
Communication strategies:
Interview cautions:
Communication strategies:
Don't misinterpret:
Recognition: Lack of eye contact, stimming (hand flapping, rocking), sensitivity to sensory stimuli, not responding to name, literal language.
De-escalation:
What calms: Routine, predictability, familiar objects, reducing stimulation. Ask caregivers if present.
What escalates: Sensory overload, unpredictability, touching, loud commands, physical restraint.
Recognition: Extreme emotional states, disorganized behavior or speech, responding to internal stimuli, paranoia, anxiety.
De-escalation:
Critical: High anxiety impairs cognitive function. Simplify communication. Be patient. Recognize that agitation is a symptom, not a threat.
Consider alternatives: Is this a mental health crisis better served by mental health professionals than police? (See section on alternatives below.)
Recognition: Concrete thinking, slow processing, difficulty with abstract concepts, may appear younger than actual age.
De-escalation:
Interview cautions: High risk of false compliance and false confessions. People may say what they think you want to hear. May not understand Miranda rights.
Recognition: Use of wheelchair, walker, cane, prosthetics; unsteady gait; difficulty with fine motor tasks.
Considerations:
Restraint and force used on disabled people has resulted in deaths:
Ethan Saylor (2013): A 26-year-old man with Down syndrome was killed by off-duty deputies who restrained him for "non-compliance" at a movie theater. He died of asphyxiation while crying "mommy." His aide had warned officers he would not react well to touch and could be calmed with patience.
Elijah McClain (2019): A 23-year-old autistic Black man was stopped while walking home, placed in a carotid hold, and injected with ketamine. He died days later.
These deaths were preventable with different approaches.
Time: If the situation is safe, wait. Many crises de-escalate with time.
Distance: Back off. Crowding escalates; space calms.
Verbal de-escalation: Keep talking. Let the person talk. Validate feelings.
Information from others: Ask family members, caregivers, group home staff what helps this individual.
Sensory modifications: Turn off sirens, reduce lights, move to quieter area.
Redirection: If you know the person's interests, redirect conversation there.
Wait for specialized resources: CIT-trained officers, mobile crisis teams, behavioral health responders.
If restraint is unavoidable:
Service animals must be allowed everywhere the public goes—including crime scenes, ambulances, emergency vehicles, and holding facilities where the handler is present.
Only two questions are permitted:
You cannot:
Never separate handlers from service animals except for the handler's safety (e.g., handler being transported for emergency medical care and animal can't safely accompany).
Separation "adversely impacts overall ability of individual to use services" and can "impair or destroy" the handler-animal relationship.
If the animal must be separated, ensure the animal is cared for and reunited as soon as possible.
What looks like intoxication or psychiatric crisis may be:
Look for: Medical alert jewelry, medical devices, medication bottles.
Ask: "Do you have a medical condition I should know about?"
Power wheelchair batteries can die, stranding people.
Insulin pumps and other devices are critical medical equipment.
Oxygen must be maintained.
Ventilators are life support—never disconnect.
Feeding tubes require supplies.
Don't take away, disconnect, or interfere with medical equipment.
Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) training is a 40-hour program teaching officers to respond to mental health crises. Core elements:
Memphis reported significant reductions in officer injuries during mental health calls after implementing CIT.
Research on CIT effectiveness is mixed. Training alone is insufficient without:
The IACP's updated Crisis Response and Intervention Training (CRIT) explicitly includes intellectual and developmental disabilities, not just mental illness.
Disability advocates argue that many calls involving disabled people should never involve armed police response in the first place. Mental health crises, autism-related behaviors, and communication breakdowns don't require law enforcement—they require appropriate professional response.
CAHOOTS (Eugene, OR): Operating since 1989, sends unarmed pairs (EMT + crisis worker) to crisis calls. Handles a significant portion of calls that would otherwise go to police.
STAR (Denver, CO): Launched 2020, deploys mental health clinician + paramedic teams. No police involvement in mental health calls they handle.
988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline: The national crisis line can deploy mobile crisis teams in many areas.
Embedded clinicians: Some departments pair clinicians with officers for mental health-related calls.
Consider whether police are the right responders:
If response is necessary, consider:
Police departments must:
City and County of San Francisco v. Sheehan (2015): While the Court didn't clearly resolve ADA application to arrests, it indicated Title II may apply to how arrests are made.
Numerous settlements have required departments to implement disability training, modify policies, and provide communication access.
Miranda warnings may not be understood by people with intellectual disabilities. Consider:
False confessions are more likely from people with intellectual disabilities who want to please authority figures.
HEARD (Helping Educate to Advance the Rights of Deaf Communities): Resources on deaf individuals and the legal system. behearddc.org
CommunicationFIRST: Advocacy for people with speech disabilities. communicationfirst.org
Autistic Self Advocacy Network: Resources on autism and law enforcement. autisticadvocacy.org
CIT International: Crisis Intervention Team resources and training. citinternational.org
IACP CRIT Toolkit: Law enforcement training on disability response. informedpoliceresponses.com
DOJ ADA guidance: Law enforcement and disability rights information.
988 Suicide and Crisis Lifeline: Call or text 988
Local mobile crisis teams: Check your jurisdiction for available services
CAHOOTS model information: Available for departments considering alternatives
| Instead of... | Try... |
|---|---|
| Shouting commands | Speaking calmly, simply |
| Demanding eye contact | Allowing natural behavior |
| Touching without warning | Explaining before any contact |
| Crowding the person | Creating space |
| Repeating commands louder | Waiting, then rephrasing |
| Interpreting slow response as defiance | Allowing processing time |
| Separating person from service animal | Keeping them together |
| Taking communication device | Allowing communication |
| Immediate physical intervention | De-escalation first |
| One-size-fits-all response | Adapting to individual |
Assume disability when behavior seems unusual. The safest assumption protects everyone.
Time and space de-escalate. If safe, wait and create distance.
Simple, direct communication. One officer, one instruction at a time.
Allow processing time. What looks like defiance may be slow processing.
Reduce sensory input. Turn off sirens, dim lights, move to calmer spaces.
Never separate people from service animals, mobility devices, or communication tools.
Ask caregivers and family if present—they know what helps.
Consider whether police are the right responders. Sometimes mental health professionals are more appropriate.
Many principles above apply. Additional considerations:
Scene safety: People with disabilities may not be able to evacuate themselves.
Communication: Ask about communication needs early.
Medical history: Ask about disabilities that affect treatment (seizure disorders, medication interactions, etc.).
Equipment: Don't separate people from wheelchairs, AAC devices, or medical equipment.
Service animals: Keep with handlers when possible; ensure care if separation required.
Transport: Accessible transport may be needed. Power wheelchairs may not fit in standard ambulances—have plans.
Sensory considerations: Reduce sirens and lights when possible. Explain what's happening.
This page centers disabled people's expertise and is informed by disabled-led organizing globally. For questions or to suggest additions, see How to Contribute.